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Unit 6
Structure 6.1Introduction
6.2 Quality Control as a system
6.2.1Dimensions of Quality 6.2.2Systems view of quality 6.3 Q.C. Techniques
6.3.1Quality at the Source 6.3.2Q.C.Tools
6.3.3Acceptance Sampling 6.4Quality Based Strategy 6.5Total Quality Management
6.5.1Introduction to TQM 6.5.2Approaches to TQM
6.5.2.1 Deming Wheel
6.5.2.2 Juran’s Quality Triology 6.5.2.3 Crosby’s Absolutes of Quality 6.5.2.4 Taguchi’s Quality Loss Function
Total Quality Management
6.6Towards TQM ISO 9000 as a platform – working with intranet 6.7Total Productive Maintenance 6.8Summary
TQs
Answer to SAQs and TQs
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6.1 Introduction
Quality has become a very important dimension of operations management, since it, Introduction has been realized production of items in required quantities at the right time is not enough. Customers demand that quality be incorporated in the product as well as in the service that goes along with it. You will appreciate that without quality every other thing loses relevance. Thus quality is a strategy for survival as well as for expending the markets. It is a marketing strategy to enter a market or to compete with existing manufacturers. It is the foundation for achieving customer’s satisfaction which is the purpose for which the organization exists. Brands get created as a consequence of that. Stance performance of the product or the perception of service is the basis of quality, the ingredients or components have to be built into the design, processes and operations that go into make the product or delivery of service either independently or as a part of the product. Statistical tools are used to identify sources of defects in the processes. They are eliminated in a systematic method, keeping records of the improvements that were possible and every opportunity is used to improve the system. Feed back from the customer and suggestions from the operating sources of defects even before they occur. This encourages involvement and commitment, which are essential for improving quality on a continuous basis. As cost has also become a major dimension of customer satisfaction, efficiencies have to be built in all operations – production, material handling, maintenance, marketing, packaging, supply chain, after sales service – have to become efficient by adopting policies which make the people at all levels give out their best. Innovation has become vital development and progress, which enable an organization to aspire for leadership position in its field. All these are possible with commitment for quality across all functions and commitment in all activities of the organization. The principles involved and the processes implemented to achieve them, form the part of the study of Total Quality Management.
Certification is another aspect of quality as it gives public recognition to the company’s attainments. It improves compliance to the processes and improves performance of the employees. As measurements and observations are made by a competent and neutral body – the certification agency bias is not seen and the compensation and reward systems are seen to be transparent. Customer’s perception of adequacy, if not excellence, goes a long way in establishing long term relationships which is the dream of every organization
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Learning Objectives :
1. To understand the meaning of quality
2. To learn the various methods by which quality is sought to be achieved using various tools 3. To become aware of the TQM concepts
4. To understand how quality is achieved by design and robust manufacturing systems 6.2 Quality Control as a system
6.2.1 Dimensions of Quality Before we consider quality control, let us see what quality means. Basically quality is inherent in the product or service that is rendered to the customer. Since we are attempting to measure the same, we will look into those aspects of quality called determinants of quality:
i) Quality of design Design means specifications of materials, finishes, characteristics and other features that are incorporated in the product of which the maker is aware and expects them to meet the customers’ needs. A manufacturer or service provider has to embed them in the product by deciding upon these factors quality is introduced by the design of these parameters. Thus quality of the design of the materials, dimensions and processes of manufacture and inspection is of utmost importance to ensure quality of performance.
ii) Conformance to design The degree to which the manufactured product or delivered service meets the parameters that have been incorporated in the design. It verifies that the variability in the process is within acceptable limits so as not to compromise the functionalities that the designer wanted.
iii) Utilization conditions These refer to the necessity of the customer being informed/trained so that the purpose for which the product was made is realized by the customer in , thus enhancing his satisfaction. Instructions, manuals, help lines, on site training by the manufacturers’ personnel improves the perception of quality. iv) After sales service
There are so many reasons why products do not function to the
expected levels. It may be improper use, unexpected /additional demands, improper assembly or even manufacturing defects. There is a need to rectify these and make products or services perform up to the expected standard. The firm should put in place a system by which these
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possibilities are anticipated and attended to give customer satisfaction. This is an important, but often neglected dimension of quality. 6.2.2 Systems View of Quality
A system consists of a number of elements which have specific functions of their own, but give support and receive support from one another to deliver outputs as though they come from a single unit. Structure, organisation, hierarchies and integration go to make it effective. Design ensures that information flow, feed back and monitoring take place to make the system efficient. Quality control is exercised mainly by two methods. The first is by designing the equipments, processes, manufacturing methods, technologies to ensure that quality parameters are obtained without fail. Robustness is built into all aspects so that in the inputs or extreme working conditions do not affect the quality characteristics. Variability is inherent in any process. All processes have equipments, tools, methodologies, movements, facilitating goods and people who have their behaviours exhibited depending on their knowledge, skills and abilities. To anticipate and plan for their proper – designed – performance within the permissible deviations so as not to affect quality is the mechanism for assuring quality. Procedures have to be established, data collected, evaluations made available at all nodal points for dissemination of information for implementing actions necessary to monitor the variables and bring them to acceptable levels. This is the quality control system.
Self Assessment Questions 1
1. TQM is management and control of_________.
2. Customer’s perception of adequacy, if not excellence, goes a long way in establishing_____________________. 3. Variability is inherent ________
6.3 Q.C. Techniques Techniques are specific activities and procedures adopted using data for determining a particular aspect of quality for arriving at decisions which are conclusive. Each technique, though developed and tested by senior personnel or consultants will be simple enough to be understood, implemented and interpreted by the personnel for their immediate use. The techniques to be used, the criteria to be adopted and the way of interpreting data are handed over to them for use. We will consider some of them here.
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6.3.1 Quality at the source
This concept of quality makes the production worker responsible
for inspection of his own work and take corrective action. Since inspection is done immediately after a job is done, the cause of the error with clarity and aids in faster rectification. Many times some fundamental processing mistakes get identified and their analyses improves the quality in the long run. Every worker has the authority to stop production, if he finds some serious defect. This puts responsibility for quality on the workers and gives them pride in their work. Help should always be available from the Quality Control personnel to help workers understand the implications of the above actions. This brings in cooperation and improves the achievement of quality. The information generated may be used to effect improvements at the suppliers’ end also. The entire process brings in openness, commitment and participation and helps in achieving quality.
6.3.2 QC Tools The following seven are considered basic tools for achieving quality. a) b) c) d) e) f) g)
Flow Chart Check sheet Histogram Pareto Analysis Scatter Diagram Control Chart
Cause and Effect Diagram
a) Flow Chart It is a visual representation of process showing the various steps. It helps in locating the points at which a problem exists or an improvement is possible. Detailed data can be collected, analysed and methods for correction can be developed. A sample is shown below. List out the various steps or activities in a particular job. Classify them as a procedure or a decision. Each decision point generates alternatives. Criteria and Consequences that go with decision are amenable to evaluation for purposes of assessing quality. The flow chart helps in pinpointing the exact at which errors have crept in. A simple chart is shown below.
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b)Check Sheet These are used to record the number of defects, types of defects,
locations at which they are occurring, times at which they are occurring, workmen by whom they are occurring. It keeps a record of the frequencies of occurrence with reference to possible defect causing parameter. It helps to implement a corrective procedure at the point where the frequencies are more, so that the benefit of correct will be maximum. A sample sheet is shown below. D E D F A E Y C T 1 2 3 4 5 6 / / / // // /// // /// //// ////// //// ////// //// /// /// //// /// /// /// ///// //// // // / /// // /// // // /// // 1 2 3 4 5 The table shows that the number of defects 1 and 5 are not many as compared to defect no 2 which increased over the days and appears to be stabilizing at the higher side and therefore needs to be attended immediately. The column which shows days can be changed to observed by the hour, if need be.
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c) Histogram Histograms are graphical representations of distribution of data. They are generally used to record huge volumes of data about a process. They reveal whether the pattern of distribution has a single peak, or many peak and also the extent of variation around the peak value. This helps in identifying whether the problem is serious. When used in conjunction with comparable parameters, the visual patterns help us to identify the problem which should be attended to.
100 90 80 FREQUENCY 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 A B C D E F 14 27 32 29 20 50 The values shown are the number of observations made regarding a parameter. Sometimes, the percentages are shown to demonstrate the relative contribution of each of the parameters.
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c) Pareto Analysis This is a tool for classifying problem areas according to the degree of importance and attending to the most important. Pareto principle, also called 8020 rule, states that 80 percent of the problems that we encounter arise out of 20 percent of items. If we find that, in a day, we have 184 assemblies having problems and there are 11 possible causes, it is observed that 80 per cent of them i.e. 147 of them have been caused by just 2 or 3 of them. It will be easy to focus on these 2 or three and reduce the number of defects to a great extent. When the cause of these defects have been attended, we will observe that some other defect becomes predominantly observed and if the process is continued, we are marching toward zero defect.
d) Scatter Diagram
These are used when we have two variables and want to know the
degree of relationship between them. We can determine if there is cause and effect relationship between and its extent over a range of values. Sometimes, we that there is no relationship, in which we can change one parameter being sure that it has no effect on the
We can see that the change in variable2 does not have much effect on variable1. The other interpretation can be that for a small change in variable 1, the effect on variable 2 is more. e) Control Charts These are used to verify whether a process is under control. Variables when they remain within a range will render the product maintain the specifications. This is the quality of conformance. The range of permitted deviations is determined by design parameters. Samples are taken and the mean and range of the variable of each sample (subgroup) is recorded. The mean of the means of the samples gives the control lines. Assuming normal distribution, we expect 99.97 per cent of all values to lie within the UCL corresponding to ± 3 s Upper Control Limit and LCL – Lower Control Limit. The graphical representation of data helps in changing settings to bring back the process closer to the target.
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CONSIDER THE FOLLOWING DATA:
A shaft is to be made with a diameter of 25mm. They area required to be ground to be between +0.01 and
0.02mm. by a process of centre less grinding. A sample of 5 nos. is taken every hour and the observations are recorded as under.
9 A.M
24.98 24.99 25.0 25.04 25.01 12 Noon
24.97 24.99 25.01 25.04 25.03 4PM
24.97 24.99 25.01 25.04 25.03
10AM 11AM
25.01 25.02 25.0 24.99 24.98 25.02
25.01 25.0 25.02 24.97 2 PM 3PM
25.01 25.02 25.0 24.99 24.98 25.02 25.03 25.01 24.97 25.00 5 PM
25.01 25.02 25.0
25.03 25.01
1. DRAW A LINE DIAGRAM TAKING THE MEANS OF EVERY HOUR 2. DRAW THE
R CHART AND X CHARTS AND
DETERMINE WHETHER THE PROCESS IS UNDER CONTROL.
The method to be followed is as under.
1. Find the range for the sample readings of each hour. 2. Find the mean of the readings of each hour i.e. x
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3. Add all the means calculated above and take the mean of the means – you will get the mean for all samples.
4. The UCL is x+ 3 s where s is the standard deviation of the means of dimensions obtained on the dimensions of samples obtained every hour. However, in drawing the control charts it is customary to range and a constant that depends on the size of the sample to calculate the UCL and LCL. The formulas are as under.
UCL = x +
3 R d 2 n
LCL = x - d2 values depend on the sample size
3 R d 2 n
On a graph sheet y axis represents the dimension. The mean value is drawn as a horizontal line near the middle of the yaxis while the horizontal axis represents the serial number , of the samples. Variations of the dimensions get marked on both sides of the mean line.
f) Cause and Effect Diagram This is a diagram in which all possible causes are classified on
quality characteristics which lead to a defect. These are arranged in such a way that different branches representing causes connect the stem in the direction of the discovery of the problem. When each of them is investigated thoroughly we will be able to pinpoint some factors which cause the problem. We will also observe that a few of them will have cumulative effect or even a cascading effect.
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When
sources of the causes of defects. We make a study of each of them and try to correct it.
we
observe that we have excessive defects from a machine, we try to identify all possible
6.3.3 Acceptance Sampling In this method of quality control, the supplier and customer agree upon accepting a lot, by inspecting a small number taken randomly from the bulk supply. Out of the sample, if a small number determined and accepted by both parties are defective, the lot is accepted. If the number of defectives are more than the agreed size, the entire lot is rejected. Obviously, risks for the producer and buyer exist. As the sample size increases and the number of acceptable defectives decreases, the risk for the buyer decreases. And the converse is true. That is the reason these numbers cannot be fixed as they depend on the customer’s requirements. Sometimes parties go for a doubling sampling plan. In this case a range of defectives is fixed. If defectives are less, the lot is accepted. If it is more than the higher number the lot is rejected. If the no of defectives falls between the above two numbers another sample of a higher size is taken for inspection and if the total number of defectives is less than another determined number the lot is accepted.
6.4 Quality Based Strategy Strategy means planning and supplementing a series of activities based on the evaluation of both internal and external environment, so as to maximise the yield.
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Essentially short term and long term objectives are in the horizon. The available resources – both present and future – are evaluated and within the restraints they place on the system the most beneficial activities are planned. Most importantly an assessment of the competitors in all these aspects is made to either confront it or bypass it for reaching the goals. Unless these are not based on the quality of the product or service, the effort is meaningless. Quality in design, manufacture, packing, delivery, pricing, after sales service acts as an advantage and plays an important role is ensuring customer satisfaction. So the foundation of any strategy should be quality. Nowadays price also is a component of quality. To achieve quality at low prices efficiencies in all processes have to be realized. This is where we have Lean Manufacturing, Just in time, Flexible Manufacturing Systems, etc. play vital role in controlling costs. Working for quality awards like Deming, Malcolm Baldrige Awards increases efficiencies in the organisation and builds confidence of the customers. 6.5Total Quality Management 6.5.1 Introduction to TQM
TQM is viewed from many angles – as a philosophy, as an approach and journey towards excellence. The main thrust is to achieve customer satisfaction by involving everybody in the organisation – across all functions – with continuous improvement driving all activities. TQM systems are designed to prevent poor quality from occurring. The following steps are implemented to achieve Total Quality.
a) Take all measures to know what the customer wants – voice of the customer. customer – the next person in the process.
b) Convert the wants into design specifications, that meet or exceed customer expectations. c) Processes are to be designed so that they facilitate doing the job right the first time. Incorporate elements that make it impossible to make mistakes. It is called failsafing or fool proofing. The Japanese call it Pokayoke.
d) Keeping record of all occurrences, procedures followed and consequences. They help in validating the processes so that continuous improvement becomes possible. More importantly any gaps can be seen and rectified immediately.
One of the basic tenets of TQM is just because something is working well improvement is not necessary. The search must be continuous to find ways and means to improve every aspect of
Develop
methods that generate facts which can be used for decision making. Do not ignore the internal
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the business process – finance, operations and management. Complacency should never be allowed to creep in at any time. In this aspect, culture plays an important role. All these require top management commitment
6.5.2 Approaches to TQM Being practiced worldwide by different organisations, TQM has different approaches towards its achievement. The basic thrust of each of these is realising excellence. All the approaches have a lot in common, but the emphasis shifts from one other. Needless to say, each organisation will use any of these or even a combination to suit its structure, culture and need. Some emphasise on the philosophy of TQM and the role of management and employees in being aware, committed and act. Some expect us to use statistics more intensely. Some give us an ‘integrated approach’.
6.5.2.1 Deming Wheel Deming’s approach is summarised in his 14 points. 1. Constancy of purpose for continuous improvement 2. Adopt the TQM philosophy for economic purposes 3. Do not depend on inspection to deliver quality 4. Do not award any business based on price alone 5. Improve the system of production and service constantly 6. Conduct meaningful training on the job
7. Adopt modern methods of supervision and leadership
8. Remove fear from the minds of everyone connected with the organisation 9. Remove barriers between departments and people 10. Do not exhort, repeat slogans and put up posters. 11. Do not set up numerical quotas and work standards 12. Give pride of workmanship to the workmen 13. Education and training to be given vigorously
14. State and exhibit top management’s commitment for quality and productivity
Using the above principles, Deming gave a four step approach to ensure a
purposeful journey of TQM. The slope is shown to indicate that if efforts are let up the programme will roll back.
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Plan means that a problem is identified, processes are determined and relevant theories are checked out .
Do – means that the plan is implemented on a trial basis. All inputs are correctly measured and recorded.
Check – means that the trials taken according to the plan are in accordance with the expected results.
Act When all the above steps are satisfactory regular production is started so that quality outcomes are assured
6.5.2.2 Juran’s Quality Triology Juran uses his famous Universal Breakthrough
Sequence to implement quality programmes. They are
A – Proof of need there should be a compelling need to make changes
B – Project Identification Here what is to be changed is identified Specific projects with time frames and the resource allocation are decided.
C Organisation with top management’s commitment is made in terms of assignment of persons, responsibilities fixed
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D Diagnostic journey Each team will determine the problems result from systemic causes or random or deliberately caused. Root causes are ascertained with utmost certainty. E Remedial Action – This is the stage when changes are introduced. Inspection, testing and validation are also included at this point.
F Holding on to the gains The above steps result in beneficiary results. Having records or all actions and consequences will help in further improvements. The actions that resulted in the benefits derived should be the norm for establishing standards. Juran has categorized cost of quality into four categories
(a) Failure costs – Internal These are costs of rejections, repairs etc in terms of materials, labour, machine time and loss of morale;
(b) Failure costs – External – These are costs of replacement, onsite rework including spare parts and expenses of the personnel, warranty costs and loss of goodwill;
(c) Appraisal Costs costs of inspection, including maintenance of records, certification, segregation costs, etc. (d) Prevention costs
The sequence of three sets of activities Quality Planning, Quality Control and Quality Improvement form the triology to achieve Total Quality Management. His arguments are that
1. Quality is the result of good planning considering the needs of both internal and external
customers and develop processes to meet them. The processes are also planned to meet them. 2. Quality is built into the system of manufacture inputs and processes that are on stream like raw
material, spare parts, labour, machine maintenance, training, warehousing, inspection procedures, packaging, etc. They have to be made to follow standards and control exercised to make sure that mistakes do not occur often and if they are they are corrected at the source. 3. Quality Improvement measures are essential to keep the quality culture alive. Newer methods
will be found, some operations can be eliminated, improved technology available In short, as experience is gained things can always be done better. It is for the management to take the initiative and encourage the employees to be on the look out for opportunities for improvement.
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6.4.2.3 Crosby’s absolutes of Quality
Like Deming, he also lays emphasis on top management commitment and responsibility for designing the system so that defects are not inevitable. He urged that there be no restriction on spending for achieving quality. In the long run, maintaining quality is more economical rather than compromising on its achievement. His absolutes can be listed as under. (i) (ii) (iv)
Quality is conformance to requirements – not ‘goodness’. Prevention, not appraisal, is the path to quality.
Quality originates in all factions. There are no quality problems. It is the people,
(iii) Quality is measured as the price paid for nonconformance and as indexes. design, process, who create problems
Crosby also has given 14 points similar to those of Deming. His approach emphasizes on measurement of quality, increasing awareness, corrective action, error cause removal and continuously reinforcing the system, so that advantages derived are not lost over time. He desires that the quality management regimen should improve the overall health of the organisation and prescribed a vaccine. The ingredients are:
1. Integrity honesty and commitment to produce everything right first time, every time. 2. Communication Flow of information between departments, suppliers, customers helps in identifying opportunities.
3. Systems and operations These should bring in a quality environment so that nobody is comfortable with anything less than the best.
6.5.3.4Taguchi’s Quality Loss Function His contention is that quality comes from
design. He advocated a wide use of Design of Experiments for experimentation on variables and obtain specifications which will result in high quality of the product. It helps in bringing cost effective improvements in quality. He believed that designers should make robust designs so that product can withstand the variabilities which tend to be persistent and give quality for longer periods. His objective in giving the loss function is to make manufacturers
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realize that it is the target value of the specification that should be sought to be achieved and not the permissible deviations. The loss caused is the square of the deviation multiplied by a cost constant.
2
L = C (XT)
L = Total Loss C= Cost constant
X = average value of the quality characteristic T = target value of the characteristic.
Taguchi also talks about losses to society because of a dent in quality both the manufacturers and users in society who will have to endure the consequences of reduced performance as long as the product is used.
Self Assessment Questions 2 :
1. The flow chart helps in _________ the ___________at which errors have crept in. 2. ______________ measures are essential to keep the quality culture alive. 3. Quality is measured as the price paid for _____________ and as indexes.
6.6
Towards TQM ISO 9000 As A Platform – Working With Intranet
In this Unit so far, we saw a number of methods of achieving quality and also the prescriptions of the quality gurus. No particular model or methodology might be completely useful to any organisation. However with the knowledge gained by becoming aware of the various tools, we should be in a position to implement the steps which will be suitable for us. In this direction ISO 9000 set of standards which details out requirements to be adhered to for certification – helps the organisation to be on track in the journey towards TQM. International Standards Organization in Geneva brought out a set of standards to the practice of methods which assure quality. The objectives can be briefly stated as under (a) (b) (c)
To maintain product quality in relationship to requirements and reinforce the organizational To give confidence to the management and other stakeholders, especially the customers, To instill a sense of pride in the employees which motivates them to perform better.
systems to improve.
that the organisation is run on quality lines.
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The key elements of ISO 9000 which are required for certification details the many functions of the organisation and procedures are to be adhered to. Documents that they are being followed have to be formulated and the personnel trained to use them. Documentation is a very important requirement. It means write what has to be done, and do what you have promised to do. Certification is done by accredited agencies who are specially trained to do the various inspections required before an organisation is certified. During the process of implementation, a number of opportunities open up for improving quality. Since documentation is done for all activities, the records act as a guide for analyzing problems and solutions can be sought. The team work that is required results in better communication. ISO 9000 acts as a starting point towards higher efforts for achieving TQM. Six sigma projects can be taken up for a more rigorous implementation of quality standards. The benefits of better communication with intranet cannot be overlooked. Capturing data, analysis of them and distribution of relevant data to users is an important facilitation process which intranet provides. Verification, guidance and monitoring becomes easy and all processes – whether design, manufacture or dispatch can be conducted efficiently with proper authorizations sought and got instantly. With videoconferencing the inconvenience of putting people at one place for discussion and decision making is avoided. Documents can be transferred, edited and given effect to almost instantaneously. The time, energy and money saved can be utilized for other activities – thus enhancing efficiency of all the people concerned. All these enhance the quality of work of all personnel.
Self Assessment Questions 3:
1._____________acts as a starting point towards higher efforts for achieving TQM. 6.7
Total Productive Maintenance( TPM )
Maintenance is a function in any operations system which has the responsibility of keeping the equipments in good condition. Generally equipments deteriorate because usage makes the parts wear introducing inaccuracies on the products made on them. When the deterioration produces components which exceed the permitted deviations rendering them unacceptable – maintenance is undertaken to bring back the machine to produce acceptable components. Sometimes the failure is sudden and serious that the equipment stops working. Disruption of production and emergency repair work are costly and schedules are missed causing delays in supplies and consequent losses.
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These breakdowns occur because the equipment was carrying hidden defects which were not apparent during conditions which could permit functioning despite the latent defect. All these are attended to by the maintenance department. Historical records indicate the probability of failures over different periods and we plan to attend to them. With progress in automation, we have costly equipments. We have flow lines and any one machine breaking down causes a series of machines to be idle. So, we have to move towards zero breakdowns like we want to move towards zero defects by implementing TQM tools. TPM puts the responsibility of maintenance where it belongs to and the operator who uses the equipment. It is a companywide activity which involves all the people. The main thrust is eliminating all break downs. The focus is on the operating personnel because they would know about malfunctioning earlier and more than anybody else. They work on the machine an will aware of the slightest variations that occur and will be able to plan for removing the cause before it becomes serious. So every planned maintenance activity reduces the probability of a breakdown. Ownership of the operation and machine increases the commitment of the workmen. Autonomy is the starting point for learning and excellence. The worker can suggest better ways of improving quality, productivity and design. This helps in continuous improvement. Team work and participation improves the quality culture. The principles of 5S – the housekeeping activities which improve efficiency at workplace is considered a measurable standard to aid the implementation of TPM even in the office rooms.
Self Assessment Questions 4.
1 TPM puts the responsibility of ________ where it belongs to the operator who uses the _______________. 6.8 Summary
Importance of quality cannot be overemphasized.. Achievement of quality is not limited to the production department or the quality control department. Modern concepts of quality go beyond maintaining dimensions and making the products work well. Quality is to be incorporated into all functions of management along with transport, accounting, packaging and Total quality envisages where suppliers and customers are treated as partners to achieve total quality. Concepts of Six sigma and their implementation assures enhanced customer satisfaction.
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6.9Terminal Questions:
1. What are the dimensions of Quality: 2. Explain the concept of Quality at Source 3.Which are the Q C Tools?
4 Why Acceptance sampling is done:
5. Explain how cause and effect diagram helps in finding the root cause of a problem? 6.What does Deming Wheel represent?
7. How does Crosby’s absolutes of quality differ from Deming’s principles. 6.10 Answers for Self Assessment Questions and TQs Self Assessment Questions 1 1. Qualityrelated activities 2. long term relationships 3. In any process.
Self Assessment Questions 2
1. pinpointing , exact place 2. Quality improvement 3. Nonconformance
Self Assessment Questions 3
1. ISO 9000
Self Assessment Questions 4
1. Maintenance, equipment
Answers to Terminal Questions: 1. Refer 6.2.1 2. Refer 6.3.1
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3. Refer 6.3.2 4. Refer 6.3.3 5. Refer 6.3.3 6. Refer 6.6.2.1 7. Refer 6.5.2.3
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